References
The 86 sources behind the Bio Action Plan. Numbers match the superscripts throughout the plan; hover or tap any of them to see its source.
- 1
Executive Office of the President. American Pandemic Preparedness: Transforming Our Capabilities (The White House, 2021).
bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/American-Pandemic-Preparedness-Transforming-Our-Capabilities-Final-For-Web.pdf - 2
Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response. COVID-19: Make it the Last Pandemic (2021).
theindependentpanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/COVID-19-Make-it-the-Last-Pandemic_final.pdf - 3
Esvelt, K. M. Delay, Detect, Defend: Preparing for a Future in which Thousands Can Release New Pandemics. Geneva Paper No. 29 (Geneva Centre for Security Policy, 2022).
gcsp.ch/publications/delay-detect-defend-preparing-future-which-thousands-can-release-new-pandemics - 4
Watson, C. et al. Technologies to Address Global Catastrophic Biological Risks (Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, 2018).
centerforhealthsecurity.org/sites/default/files/2022-12/181009-gcbr-tech-report.pdf - 5
United Nations Security Council. Resolution 1540 (2004). S/RES/1540 (28 April 2004).
documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n04/328/43/pdf/n0432843.pdf - 6
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Biodefense in the Age of Synthetic Biology (National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2018).
doi.org/10.17226/24890 - 7
Ecker, D. J. et al. Opportunities and challenges for innovative and equitable healthcare. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 23, 321–322 (2024).
doi.org/10.1038/d41573-024-00032-4 - 8
Nuclear Threat Initiative & Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. 2021 Global Health Security Index (2021).
ghsindex.org/global/ - 9
United Nations. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. United Nations Treaty Series 1015, No. 14860 (1972).
treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201015/volume-1015-I-14860-English.pdf - 10
World Health Organization. International Health Regulations (2005), as Amended in 2014, 2022 and 2024 (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2026).
apps.who.int/gb/bd/pdf_files/IHR_2014-2022-2024-en.pdf - 11
World Health Organization. Global Guidance Framework for the Responsible Use of the Life Sciences: Mitigating Biorisks and Governing Dual-Use Research (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2022).
who.int/publications/i/item/9789240056107 - 12
World Health Organization. Laboratory Biosecurity Guidance (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2024).
who.int/publications/i/item/9789240095113 - 13
World Health Organization. Laboratory Biosafety Manual 4th edn (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2020).
who.int/publications/i/item/9789240011311 - 14
Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense. The Apollo Program for Biodefense: Winning the Race Against Biological Threats (Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense, 2021).
biodefensecommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Apollo_report_final_v8_033121_web.pdf - 15
Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. Center for Health Security report highlights 15 emerging technologies with potential to reduce global catastrophic biological risks (2018).
centerforhealthsecurity.org/2018/center-for-health-security-report-highlights-15-emerging-technologies-with-potential-to-reduce-global-catastrophic-biological-risks - 16
International Pandemic Preparedness Secretariat. 100 Days Mission Implementation Report: Progress in 2025 & Priorities for 2026 (International Pandemic Preparedness Secretariat, 2026).
ippsecretariat.org/publication/fifth-implementation-report/ - 17
World Health Organization. Pathogens Prioritization: A Scientific Framework for Epidemic and Pandemic Research Preparedness (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2024).
cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/consultation-rdb/prioritization-pathogens-v6final.pdf - 18
Anthropic. Detecting and countering misuse of AI: September 2026 (2026).
anthropic.com/threat-intelligence-report-september-2026#biological-misuse-sep-26 - 19
Götting, J. et al. Virology Capabilities Test (VCT): a multimodal virology Q&A benchmark. Preprint at arXiv:2504.16137 (2025).
securebio.org/virologytest/ - 20
Hong, S. Z. et al. Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in Biology. arXiv:2602.16703 (2026).
arxiv.org/abs/2602.16703 - 21
Righetti, L., Lukosiute, K. & Black, J. Coding Agents Are Changing the Biosecurity Risk Landscape (Centre for the Governance of AI, 2026).
governance.ai/analysis/coding-agents-are-changing-the-biosecurity-risk-landscape - 22
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Statement on Biosecurity Risks at the Convergence of AI and the Life Sciences (NTI, 2025).
nti.org/analysis/articles/statement-on-biosecurity-risks-at-the-convergence-of-ai-and-the-life-sciences/ - 23
Webster, T. et al. Global Risk Index for AI-enabled Biological Tools (Centre for Long-Term Resilience & RAND Europe, 2025).
doi.org/10.71172/wjyw-6dyc - 24
G20 High Level Independent Panel on Financing the Global Commons for Pandemic Preparedness and Response. High-Level Summary of Recommendations and Enabling Actions. Summary associated with Closing the Deal: Financing Our Security Against Pandemic Threats (2025).
nam.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Closing-the-Deal_final_summary.pdf - 25
Global Health Security Agenda. Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA).
globalhealthsecurityagenda.org/ - 26
Abel, G. R. Jr et al. Beyond sequence similarity: toward function-based screening of nucleic acid synthesis. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 14, 1832724 (2026).
doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2026.1832724 - 27
Wittmann, B. J. et al. Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design tools. Science 390, 82–87 (2025).
doi.org/10.1126/science.adu8578 - 28
Carter, S. R., Yassif, J. M. & Isaac, C. R. Benchtop DNA Synthesis Devices: Capabilities, Biosecurity Implications, and Governance (NTI, 2023).
nti.org/analysis/articles/benchtop-dna-synthesis-devices-capabilities-biosecurity-implications-and-governance/ - 29
UK Government. UK screening guidance on synthetic nucleic acids for users and providers (2024).
gov.uk/government/publications/uk-screening-guidance-on-synthetic-nucleic-acids/uk-screening-guidance-on-synthetic-nucleic-acids-for-users-and-providers - 30
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Preventing the misuse of DNA synthesis technology (accessed 11 September 2026).
nti.org/about/programs-projects/project/preventing-the-misuse-of-dna-synthesis-technology/ - 31
Rose, S., Alexanian, T., Langenkamp, M., Cozzarini, H. & Diggans, J. Practical questions for securing nucleic acid synthesis. Appl. Biosaf. 29, 159–171 (2024).
doi.org/10.1089/apb.2023.0028 - 32
Schmitt, J. & Monrad, J. How to Secure the DNA Supply Chain: A field guide for policymakers, founders, and funders (Institute for Progress, 2026).
ifp.org/how-to-secure-the-dna-supply-chain/ - 33
Feldman, J., Feldman, T. & Anton, A. I. Know your scientist: KYC as biosecurity infrastructure. Front. Microbiol. 17, 1814993 (2026).
doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2026.1814993 - 34
Sentinel Bio. Independent Biosecurity Contractors: BioTrust development (Sentinel Bio, 2026).
sentinelbio.org/grant/biosecurity-research-team-4/ - 35
Carter, S. R., Boldrini, L. & Alexanian, T. Implementing emerging customer screening standards for nucleic acid synthesis. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 14, 1819810 (2026).
doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2026.1819810 - 36
Bengio, Y. et al. International AI Safety Report 2026. DSIT 2026/001 (Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, 2026).
internationalaisafetyreport.org/publication/international-ai-safety-report-2026 - 37
AI Security Institute. 5 key findings from our first Frontier AI Trends Report (AISI, 2025) (accessed 11 September 2026).
aisi.gov.uk/blog/5-key-findings-from-our-first-frontier-ai-trends-report - 38
Rose, S., Moulange, R., Smith, J. & Nelson, C. The near-term impact of AI on biological misuse (Centre for Long-Term Resilience, 2024).
longtermresilience.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/CLTR-Report-The-near-term-impact-of-AI-on-biological-misuse-July-2024-1.pdf - 39
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Disseminating In Silico and Computational Biological Research: Navigating Benefits and Risks: Proceedings of a Workshop (National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2025).
doi.org/10.17226/29174 - 40
Bloomfield, D. et al. Securing Dual-Use Pathogen Data of Concern. Preprint at arXiv:2602.08061 (2026).
arxiv.org/abs/2602.08061 - 41
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Developing Guardrails for AI Biodesign Tools (NTI, 2024).
nti.org/analysis/articles/developing-guardrails-for-ai-biodesign-tools/ - 42
Guerra, S. et al. Building a Defense-in-Depth Biosecurity Strategy for the AI Era. RR-A4999-1 (RAND, 2026).
rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA4999-1.html - 43
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Research Agenda for Safeguarding AI-Bio Capabilities (white paper, 2024).
nti.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Research-Agenda-for-Safeguarding-AI-Bio-Capabilities.pdf - 44
Anthropic. Project Glasswing: securing critical software for the AI era (2026).
anthropic.com/glasswing - 45
OpenAI. Introducing GPT-Rosalind for life sciences research (OpenAI, 2026).
openai.com/index/introducing-gpt-rosalind/ - 46
Anthropic. Improving Fable 5's biology safeguards (2026).
anthropic.com/news/improving-fable-5-s-biology-safeguards - 47
Google DeepMind and Isomorphic Labs. Google DeepMind and Isomorphic Labs approach to bioresilience (Google DeepMind, 2026).
deepmind.google/blog/our-approach-to-bioresilience/ - 48
Nuclear Threat Initiative. A Framework for Managed Access to Biological AI Tools (NTI, 2026).
nti.org/analysis/articles/a-framework-for-managed-access-to-biological-ai-tools/ - 49
Carter, S. R. & Olsen, M. Biosecurity-by-design for CEPI's Pandemic Preparedness Engine (CEPI, 2026).
cepi.net/biosecurity-design-cepis-pandemic-preparedness-engine - 50
Tarangelo, J. P., Attal-Juncqua, A., Somani, E., Roberts, D. & Webster, K. Protecting Biological Materials and Services from Misuse: Opportunities for Access Monitoring and Control. RR-A4067-1 (RAND, 2025).
rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA4067-1.html - 51
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Guidance for Assessing Biosecurity and Biosafety Risks: For the Purpose of Reviewing Research Proposals Prior to Funding (2025).
nti.org/analysis/articles/guidance-for-assessing-biosecurity-and-biosafety-risks/ - 52
Nuclear Threat Initiative & CEPI. International Bio Funders Compact to Integrate Biosecurity into Life Science Research Funding (2024).
cepi.net/international-bio-funders-compact-integrate-biosecurity-life-science-research-funding - 53
National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity. Proposed Biosecurity Oversight Framework for the Future of Science (draft, 2023).
osp.od.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/DRAFT-NSABB-WG-Report.pdf - 54
Nuclear Threat Initiative. Enhancing Transparency for Bioscience Research and Development (NTI, 2025).
nti.org/analysis/articles/enhancing-transparency-for-bioscience-research-and-development/ - 55
Tarangelo, J. P., Attal-Juncqua, A., Somani, E., Roberts, D. & Webster, K. Legitimate Research or Biological Threat? Detecting Misuse of the Biological Supply Network and Policy Options to Reduce Risks. RB-A4067-1 (RAND, 2025).
rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RBA4067-1.html - 56
Murch, R. S. Bioattribution needs a coherent international approach to improve global biosecurity. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 3, 80 (2015).
doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2015.00080 - 57
Crook, O. M., Franz, A. & Maiwald, A. Tracing engineered biothreats with AI forensics: five steps to improve attribution. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (2025).
thebulletin.org/2025/12/tracing-engineered-biothreats-with-ai-forensics-five-steps-to-improve-attribution/ - 58
Nuclear Threat Initiative. NTI Publishes New Details about Tool for Assessing Pandemic Origins (NTI, 2024).
nti.org/news/nti-publishes-new-details-about-the-joint-assessment-mechanism-jam/ - 59
Kaufman, J. Building a three-day early-warning system for novel pathogens. SecureBio (2026).
securebio.org/blog/three-day-early-warning-system/ - 60
World Health Organization. Defining Collaborative Surveillance: A Core Concept for Strengthening the Global Architecture for Health Emergency Preparedness, Response, and Resilience (HEPR) (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2023).
who.int/publications/i/item/9789240074064 - 61
Grimm, S. L. et al. Inferring the sensitivity of wastewater metagenomic sequencing for early detection of viruses: a statistical modelling study. Lancet Microbe 6, 101187 (2025).
doi.org/10.1016/j.lanmic.2025.101187 - 62
World Health Organization. International Pathogen Surveillance Network launches catalytic grant fund for pathogen genomics (2024).
who.int/news/item/23-02-2024-international-pathogen-surveillance-network-launches-catalytic-grant-fund-for-pathogen-genomics - 63
St-Onge, G. et al. Pandemic monitoring with global aircraft-based wastewater surveillance networks. Nat. Med. 31, 788–796 (2025).
doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03501-4 - 64
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Emergency Use Authorization (accessed 11 September 2026).
fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/mcm-legal-regulatory-and-policy-framework/emergency-use-authorization - 65
Torres Montaguth, O. E., Buddle, S., Morfopoulou, S. & Breuer, J. Clinical metagenomics for diagnosis and surveillance of viral pathogens. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 24, 61–75 (2026).
doi.org/10.1038/s41579-025-01223-5 - 66
Marra, P. S. et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in patients with infectious meningoencephalitis: a comprehensive systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 12, ofaf274 (2025).
doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofaf274 - 67
Gates Foundation. What it will take to make self-administered COVID-19 testing possible (Gates Foundation, 2020).
gatesfoundation.org/ideas/articles/coronavirus-interview-dan-wattendorf - 68
Institute of Medicine. Advancing Regulatory Science for Medical Countermeasure Development: Workshop Summary (National Academies Press, 2011).
doi.org/10.17226/13173 - 69
Patel, A. J. et al. Physical Approaches to Civilian Biodefense: Identifying Potential Preparedness Measures for Challenging Biological Threats. RR-A4036-1 (RAND, 2025).
rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA4036-1.html - 70
Blueprint Biosecurity. Building a more resilient future through respiratory protection: how Blueprint Biosecurity's approach to PPE has evolved and shaped its impact (Blueprint Biosecurity, 2026).
blueprintbiosecurity.org/resource/building-a-more-resilient-future-through-respiratory-protection/ - 71
Brown University Pandemic Center. The Clean Indoor Air Initiative (accessed 20 September 2026).
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Brainard, J. et al. Effectiveness of filtering or decontaminating air to reduce or prevent respiratory infections: a systematic review. Prev. Med. 177, 107774 (2023).
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Morawska, L. et al. A paradigm shift to combat indoor respiratory infection. Science 372, 689–691 (2021).
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Air Club. Global Pledge for Healthy Indoor Air (2025).
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Blueprint Biosecurity. Blueprint for Far-UVC (Blueprint Biosecurity, 2025).
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ASHRAE. ASHRAE publishes Standard 241, control of infectious aerosols (2023).
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Graham, B. S. & Sullivan, N. J. Emerging viral diseases from a vaccinology perspective: preparing for the next pandemic. Nat. Immunol. 19, 20–28 (2018).
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Hwang, T. Progress Deferred: Lessons From mRNA Vaccine Development (Institute for Progress, 2024).
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Gupta, A., Rudra, A., Reed, K., Langer, R. & Anderson, D. G. Advanced technologies for the development of infectious disease vaccines. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 23, 914–938 (2024).
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Pardi, N. & Krammer, F. mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases — advances, challenges and opportunities. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 23, 838–861 (2024).
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Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations. CEPI: 2024 Annual Progress Report (CEPI, 2025).
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Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Gates Foundation to accelerate mRNA vaccine innovation and manufacturing in Africa and globally (2023).
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World Health Organization. WHO Simulation Exercise Manual. WHO/WHE/CPI/2017.10 (World Health Organization, 2017).
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Kim, J. et al. Fast-tracking vaccine manufacturing: CEPI's rapid response framework for the 100 Days Mission. Vaccines 13, 849 (2025).
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